Class 8, Social Science II, Chapter 2. The River Valley Civilizations

Who was the director of Archaeological Survey of India when an excavation was conducted in Indus valley in 1921?

Sir John Marshall

What was the result of the excavation in Indus valley in 1921?

The excavations revealed that a civilization had existed in the valleys of the river Indus and its tributaries. Hence, this civilization came to be known as the Indus valley civilization.

Which were the two sites, where the excavation had been conducted? Who led the excavations?

The first excavation was conducted in Harappa in the present Pakistan. It was led by Daya Ram Sahni.

It was R D Banerji, who led the excavations in Mohenjodaro in the present Pakistan.

The Indus valley civilization is also known as Harappan civilization. Why?

The first excavation was conducted in Harappa in the present Pakistan. It was led by Daya Ram Sahni. Since the first evidence for the Indus valley civilization was obtained from Harappa, this civilization is also known as the Harappan civilization.

What do you know about the extent and period of Harappan civilization?

The Harappan civilization stretched across the region ranging from the western part of Pakistan to Alamgirpur in Uttar Pradesh, and from Kashmir in the north to the Narmada valley in the south. The period of this civilization is generally placed between BCE 2700 and BCE 1700.

Complete the chart that indicates the excavations of the Indus valley civilization.

Answer:

List the major sites of the Indus valley civilization in the table given. Identify the present countries in which they are situated.

Answer:

Features of Indus cities

The cities Harappa, Mohenjodaro, and Lothal all had two parts. One part of the city was higher. It was used by the administrators. Other part was lower and was inhabited by the common people. Houses were built along both sides of planned streets. They were of varying structures. The houses were built of burned bricks. Some houses had only one room, whereas others had more rooms, a courtyard and a well. Every house had a toilet.

The drainage system was another feature of these cities. The waste water from the houses was let out into the drains. These drains were connected to the main drain of the street. The drains were built of burnt bricks and covered with stone slabs. Effective drainage systems existed even in small towns and villages.

In Mohenjodaro a great tank, called the Great Bath, was discovered. It is an evidence for the architectural skill of the people of that period. It was built entirely with burnt bricks.

Granary and agriculture

Granaries are significant among the ruins discovered from Harappa. They were big buildings with the facility to dry and store grains. The remains of wheat, barley, millet, sesame, pulses, etc. have been found here. Evidence of rice cultivation have been uncovered from Rangpur and Lothal in Gujarat. Cotton was also cultivated. The urban folk depended on the villages for food and work. The villages were the major market for the urban products. The agricultural fields in the villages were fertile.

It is the alluvial soil deposited by the river Indus that made them fertile. In Kalibangan in Rajasthan farming was done by ploughing the land. The figures of ploughs made of clay were discovered from here. Canals were constructed for irrigation.

In addition to agriculture, animal husbandry also existed. Plenty of animal bones have been unearthed from here. The figures of rhinoceros and elephants made of clay have also been found. They reared ox, goat, pig, and sheep.

The surplus agricultural products were stored in the granary. The grains collected in the form of revenue were also kept there. The grains thus stored were made available to the public. Such granaries are the evidence for the existence of an efficient administrative system.

Trade

The agricultural progress led to surplus production and storage of grains. Accurate weights and measures were used for exchanging the stored products. Weighing and measuring tools have been unearthed from here.

The inscriptions discovered from Mesopotamia mention their trade relation with Meluha. Historians opine that Meluha is probably Harappa. The Mesopotamian seals found from Harappa also provide evidence for this trade link. Lothal was one of the centres of maritime trade. The clay models of sailing ships obtained also prove their maritime trade link.

The seals widely found from the Indus valley sites were probably used for the purpose of trade. However, no evidence for the use of coins has been found yet. They collected copper from the mines of Khetri in the present Rajastan and tin from the present Afghanistan and central Asia. Copper was mixed with tin to produce bronze. They made tools and weapons using bronze. Since bronze was widely used in the Harappan civilization, it came to be known as Bronze Age civilization.

What do you know about the drainage system of Indus valley cities?

The drainage system was an important feature of the Indus valley cities. The waste water from the houses was let out into the drains. These drains were connected to the main drain of the street. The drains were built of burnt bricks and covered with stone slabs. Effective drainage systems existed even in small towns and villages.

Mention the features of houses built by Indus people.

Houses were built along both sides of planned streets. They were of varying structures. The houses were built of burned bricks. Some houses had only one room, whereas others had more rooms, a courtyard and a well. Every house had a toilet.

Write short note on parts of the Harappan cities?

The part of the city to the west was higher. It was used by the administrators. The ruins of a big building, probably an assembly hall, were discovered here.

The part of the city to the east was lower and was inhabited by the common people. The ruins of many buildings that might have been houses were unearthed here.

Which is an evidence for the architectural skill of the Indus valley people?

The Great Bath in Mohenjodaro is an evidence for the architectural skill of the people of Indus valley. It was a great tank built entirely with burnt bricks.

An efficient administrative system was existed in Indus valley. Give an example for substantiating this statement.

There were granaries with the facility to dry and store grains in Harappa. The surplus agricultural products were stored in the granary. The grains collected in the form of revenue were also kept there. The grains thus stored were made available to the public. Such granaries are the evidence for the existence of an efficient administrative system.

Indus valley civilization is a bronze age civilization. Do you agree?

Indus valley people collected copper from the mines of Khetri in the present Rajastan and tin from the present Afghanistan and central Asia. Copper was mixed with tin to produce bronze. They made tools and weapons using bronze. Since bronze was widely used in the Harappan civilization, it came to be known as Bronze Age civilization.

Which city was the center of maritime trade during Indus valley civilization?

Lothal

Mesopotamia had trade relations with Harappa. How did the historians come to this conclusion?

Handicrafts and occupational groups

The seals, clay figures, utensils, ornaments, etc. dug out from Harappa bear witness to their craftsmanship. The ruins of kilns where pottery was produced have been widely dug out. Ornamental works were done on clay pots. Animal figures were moulded from clay. Figures of men, women, and carts have also been uncovered from here. Copper, bronze, and gold were used to make ornaments. Evidence of centres where beads were made have been unearthed in Lothal. Bangles were made from clay, bronze, and tortoise shells. Though skilled at making handicrafts, the Harappans did not give importance to forging weapons. The artistic skill of the Harappans is reflected in the seals they made. The seals were made from clay and stones. The statuette of the dancing girl found from Mohenjodaro is also an example for their artistic skill. The diverse handicrafts hint at the existence of occupational groups. Harappans had their own script. This script could not be deciphered till date.

Which metals were used by Harappans to make ornaments?

Copper, Bronze and Gold

Belief systems

The seals found from Harappa provide information about the then belief systems. Clay figures of women have widely been discovered. They prove the existence of worshipping the mother goddess. Such worship existed in connection with fertility of the soil. Historians opine that the figures of men found from here are the early form of Siva (Proto Siva). They also worshipped animals and trees. The Great Bath unearthed in Mohenjodaro might have been used for religious ceremonies.

The fall of the Harappan civilization

The Harappan civilization began to decline by BCE 1700. Several views prevail on the causes of its decline. A few of them are given below.

Flood

External invasions

Deforestation

Decline of agricultural sector

Epidemics

Egyptian civilization

This civilization flourished in the valley of the river Nile. Agriculture was the backbone of this civilization. The Egyptians also engaged in weaving and production of glassware.

They formed an art of writing. It is known as 'Hieroglyphics', which means 'sacred writing'. They used the leaves of the plant called papyrus for writing.

The Egyptians also attained amazing advancement in the field of science. They formulated a solar calendar. As per this calendar a year had 365 days. A year was divided into 12 months, of 30 days each. The remaining five days were set aside for celebrations. Their advancement in the field of Mathematics is also significant. They could calculate the area of triangles and rectangles. To determine time they made sundial, a clock that tells time by the shadow cast by the sun and water clock that works on water current.

The Egyptians were also skillful in sculpture. It is evident from the sphinx, a statue with lion's body and human head.

The most important feature of the Egyptian civilization is pyramids. Pyramids were tombs where the mummies were preserved. Mummies were the preserved corpses. Usually the dead body of Pharaoh, the kings of Egypt were preserved as mummies. These pyramids remain as evidence for the excessive use of labour and wealth.

The ancient civilizations like Mesopotamian, Egyptian etc. are known as Bronze Age civilizations. Why?

The ancient civilizations Indus valley, Mesopotamian, Egyptian and Chinese are commonly known as Bronze Age civilization because bronze tools were widely used in all these civilizations.

Kings of Egypt were known as ________.

Ans: Pharaoh

_________ was the back bone of Egyptian civilization.

Ans: Agriculture

Art of writing developed by Egyptians is known as _______.

Ans: Hieroglyphics

Egyptians used the leaves of the plant called ______ for writing.

Ans: papyrus

The word Hieroglyphics means ________.

Ans: sacred writing

The statue made by the Egyptians with the lion’s body and human head is known as _________.

Ans: Sphinx

Egyptian civilization flourished in the valley of river _______.

Ans: Nile

Mesopotamian civilization

The Mesopotamian civilization flourished in the region where the modern Iraq is situated. Mesopotamia is the land between the rivers Euphrates and Tigris. These rivers originate from the Armenian mountains and merge with the Persian sea. The word Mesopotamia means the land between the rivers. Four different civilizations emerged and declined in Mesopotamia. They were the Sumerian, the Babylonian, the Assyrian, and the Chaldean. The fertile soil of Mesopotamia helped agricultural progress. It led to trade and the consequent growth of cities. Ur, Uruk, and Lagash were the major cities in ancient Mesopotamia. Cities were also trading centres. As trade developed, it became essential to record the accounts of the exchanged goods. It eventually led to the development of the art of writing.

The Mesopotamian system of writing is called Cuneiform. The script was wedge-shaped. They were written on the smooth surface of wet clay tablets. A sharp stylus was used for writing. The tablets were then baked in the sun. A huge collection of these tablets has been found here. Most of them were related to trade.

They achieved remarkable progress in the field of mathematics and astronomy. They formulated a calendar based on the movements of the moon. They divided a year into 12 months, a month into four weeks, and a day into 24 hours. They knew division, multiplication, and square root.

The construction of temples namely 'ziggurat' is the evidence of the amazing architectural skills of the ancient Mesopotamians. They were constructed in cities. They were built on artificial hillocks using bricks.

The Mesopotamian civilization flourished in the region where the modern _______ is situated.

Ans: Iraq

Mesopotamia is the land between the rivers_____ and_____.

Ans: Euphrates, Tigris

The word Mesopotamia means _______________________.

Ans: the land between the rivers

What were the four different civilizations emerged and declined in Mesopotamia?

Four different civilizations emerged and declined in Mesopotamia. They were the Sumerian, the Babylonian, the Assyrian, and the Chaldean.

The Mesopotamian system of writing is called ___________.

Ans: Cuneiform

The construction of temples namely ________ is the evidence of the amazing architectural skills of the ancient Mesopotamians.

Ans: ziggurat

Chinese civilization

The Chinese civilization flourished in the valley of the river Hwang-Ho. Agriculture was the base of this civilization. They were also skillful in weaving, making pottery, and silk production.

The art of writing existed in ancient China as well. The script was pictographic, not alphabetic. Later it developed into an ideographic script. Like ancient Mesopotamians and Egyptians, ancient Chinese too formulated a calendar in which a year consisted of 365 ½ days.

The Chinese civilization flourished in the valley of the river_______.

Ans: Hwang-Ho

The ancient Chinese script was ______.

Ans: Pictographic

What were the remarkable common features of river valley civilizations?

The use of bronze, agricultural progress, development of trade and craftsmanship, the art of writing, progress in the field of science, etc. were the remarkable common features of these civilizations.

What are the major handicrafts that prevailed in Indus valley civilization?

The artistic skill of the Harappan people is evident in the seals they made. Explain with examples.

The artistic skill of the Harappan people is evident in the seals they made. Seals were made from clay and stones. The seals are evidence for the existence of a script of their own. The seals found from Harappa provide information about the then belief systems. They worshipped mother goddess and early form of Shiva. They also worshipped animals and trees. All these are depicted in the seals they made. The seals which were evidence of the artistic skill of Indus valley people were mainly used for the purpose of trade.

Prepare a note on the art of writing in Mesopotamia.

Many cities were emerged in ancient Mesopotamia as trading centers. As trade developed, it became essential to record the accounts of the exchanged goods. It eventually led to the development of the art of writing. The Mesopotamian system of writing is called Cuneiform. The script was wedge-shaped. They were written on the smooth surface of wet clay tablets. A sharp stylus was used for writing. The tablets were then baked in the sun. A huge collection of these tablets has been found here. Most of them were related to trade.

Analyse the progress achieved by the Bronze age civilizations in the fields of science and mathematics.

The Egyptians attained amazing advancement in the field of science. They formulated a solar calendar. As per this calendar a year had 365 days. A year was divided into 12 months, of 30 days each. The remaining five days were set aside for celebrations. Their advancement in the field of Mathematics is also significant. They could calculate the area of triangles and rectangles. To determine time they made sundial, a clock that tells time by the shadow cast by the sun and water clock that works on water current.

The Mesopotamians achieved remarkable progress in the field of mathematics and astronomy. They formulated a calendar based on the movements of the moon.

They divided a year into 12 months, a month into four weeks, and a day into 24 hours. They knew division, multiplication, and square root.

The Chinese also formulated a calendar in which a year consisted of 365 ½ days.